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        Cole  Davis.  April, 1995.  LCD3  Birkbeck College.   Assess  the 
        contribution  that  career development programmes might  make  in 
        increasing employees' responsibility for their own development.

           It  will be argued here that assessments in this  area  within 
        our current state of knowledge must be of an a priori nature;  in 
        addition  to  methodological problems, the forces  creating  many 
        problems  for  employees  are so volatile as  to  make  solutions 
        rather tentative.  An additional problem is to reconcile in-house 
        career   development  programmes  promoting  autonomy  with   the 
        employer's  perceived  interests.   It will  be  seen  that  this 
        crucial  issue  has  led  to a  common  classification  along  an 
        employer-  and employee-focussed continuum;  such a paradigm  may 
        be seen to be less useful than a developmental model.
        
           Russell  (1991) defines career development  interventions  "as 
        any  efforts by organizations to assist individuals  in  managing 
        their  careers and to help organizations meet their  goals  (e.g. 
        improved efficiency, staffing)."   Kidd (in press)  distinguishes 
        between  a  focus  on  organisational  needs  and  on  employees' 
        concerns.     The   former   includes   fast-track    programmes, 
        developmental   assessment   centres,  and   the   provision   of 
        information  about  career ladders and paths,  the  latter  being 
        primarily  founded  on  assessment  of  potential  abilities  and 
        competencies.   The  latter includes career  planning  workshops, 
        self-study materials and individual career counselling.  
        
           Iles  and Mabey (1993) point out that whilst  guidelines  have 
        often  been  drawn  up for career  development  programmes,  less 
        effort  has  been  put  into  evaluations  and  surveys  of  user 
        responses.  Russell (1991) and Morgan et al. (1979) make  similar 
        comments, the latter reporting that those organisations that  did 
        evaluate  their  programmes  used  reaction  measures  or  global 
        organizational  measures  (e.g.,  profit,  turnover),  with   few 
        controls imposed.  London and Stumpf (1982) also reported lack of 
        control  groups,  overreliance on self-report measures,  and  few 
        longitudinal studies. 
        
           Hanson's comment (1982) that "participants perception of being 
        'in   control'  of  career  actions  improved,  but   not   their 
        involvement  in their jobs" is reflected in other research.   The 
        problems  of self-report have been reported in surveys of  stress 
        research  (c.f. Frese and Zapf, 1988; Kasl, 1986) and studies  of 
        the  limits  of self-perception (Nisbett and  Wilson,  1977).  So 
        although  Kidd (in press) supports a  phenomenological  approach, 
        one must query the use of participants' reactions only.
        
           Iles  and  Mabey (1993) indicate  considerable  methodological 
        shortcomings  in research undertaken with 'hard  data',  although 
        they  do  cite  a U.S. naval study  (Stump,  1986)  which  showed 
        significant increases in job performance using follow-up data.  A 
        problem  with  one isolated longitudinal study  is  that  domain-
        specific effects cannot be ruled out.
        
           Pringle  and  Gold  (1989)   questioned  the  value  of   such 
        activities  in  an era of rapid change.  There is  a  possibility 
        that  research  data may be very much affected  by  the  economic 
        forces  of  the times and also that the apparently  wise  careers 
        advice  of today may be utterly at odds with employees' needs  in 
        the very near future.
        
           It  can  thus  be  seen that it is  hard  to  evaluate  career 
        development  programmes  in a scientific way.  Even an  a  priori 
        assessment  can  only  be tentative, given the  range  of  likely 
        employee  reactions in different circumstances and their  notions 
        of responsibility.  Gutteridge (1986) claims that 
           "not  all  employees  will  enthusiastically  endorse   career     
        development   programs:   Some   will   perceive   that    career     
        development   is  primarily  or  exclusively  an   organizational     
        responsibility,  while  others will conclude  that  their  career     
        progress  is  simply a matter of luck or of being  in  the  right     
        place  at  the right time.  Still others will  argue  that  there     
        is  no  sense in career planning, since one  cannot  foresee  the     
        future.    Finally,   some  individuals  will  find   the   self-    
        assessment  process  inherent  in  career  planning   threatening     
        and/or  may  be  reluctant  to  make  the  changes  required   to     
        implement a career strategy."
        
           It is the task of the assessment, then, to ask which forms  of 
        intervention are most likely to appeal to individuals, as well as 
        which tend more towards 'increasing employees' responsibility for 
        their  own development.'  Both Hall (1986a) and Kidd  (in  press) 
        classify  programmes  according to  organisational  and  employee 
        focus.    Hall  describes  a  spectrum  of   career   development 
        activities,  running  from  'employee-centred'  career   planning 
        (self-directed  workbooks  and tape cassettes),  through  'mutual 
        focus' manager-employee planning (career coaching and counselling 
        sessions),  to  'organization centred'  career  management  (e.g. 
        succession  planning).  A polarisation of effects  is  described: 
        the employee-centred end of the continuum includes high influence 
        of  the individual, high information provided to the  individual, 
        low  information provided to the organisation, and low  influence 
        of the organisation.
        
           An  implied  assumption is that the greater the focus  on  the 
        employee, the more likely it is that the programme will  increase 
        employee  responsibility  for career  development.    This  seems 
        reasonable  in  the cases of succession planning and  fast  track 
        promotion systems (the latter being seen as unfair even by  those 
        on the fast track); the interests of the employer are  paramount, 
        independence  probably only emerging from the alienation  of  the 
        unchosen.   "I  finally realized that they  (management)  weren't 
        going to do anything for me, so I'd have to make something happen 
        for myself."  (Hall, 1986b)
        
           Development  centres,  however  -  based  on  the  success  of 
        assessment centres as accurate predictors of managerial potential 
        -   may  be  seen  in  a  different  light.   Although   run   by 
        organisations,  development centres are seen as more  'open'  and 
        'supportive  of  mistakes'  than  assessment  centres,   although 
        strengths  and  weaknesses  are fed back as  profiles  after  job 
        simulations.   Iles et al (1989) studied a British centre,  where 
        participants reported  more thoughts of leaving their career  and 
        less  definite career plans and strategies.  Perhaps they  viewed 
        mismatches between expectations and abilities and  organisational 
        requirements  and  plans,  which  may  or  may  not  be  in   the 
        organisations'  interests,  but  would  appear  to  indicate   an 
        autonomous  outcome.  There seem to have been few evaluations  of 
        the centres' effectiveness, however (Iles and Mabey, 1993).
        
           In  the grey area of 'manager-employee' planning,  it  largely 
        depends  upon  the how the technique is run.   Is  coaching  job-
        specific  or a form of mentoring which will stand the  person  in 
        good  stead  in  more  generic  future  employ  (perhaps  gaining 
        'metaskills' - skills in acquiring new skills; Hall, 1986c)?   Is 
        counselling  a  largely didactic process or  more  non-directive, 
        perhaps  in  the  Rogerian tradition?    Is  the  counsellor  the 
        supervisor or an external advisor?
        
           It  should  be  noted that these  divides  are  not  clearcut.  
        According to Iles and Mabey (1993), some anchoring in the current 
        job is appreciated by employees.  It is also not proven that  the 
        most  collaborative methods, whilst being preferred in  terms  of 
        reactions, are necessarily the most effective.
        
           Mentoring, classified by Hall (1986a) as another middle  range 
        intervention - may be career-enhancing or psychosocial,  although 
        a  combination  is  apparently better  for  personal  development 
        (Kram,  1985).  A study of MBAs suggests that informal  mentoring 
        is  more  useful than a formal system, although  not  necessarily 
        fair (Iles and Mabey, 1993). 
        
           Returning  towards the organisational pole briefly,  Iles  and 
        Mabey  (1993)  introduce another anomalous  intervention,  career 
        planning workshops - "As participants set their own goals,  their    
        motivation  is  likely  to be enhanced.   Unless  the  goals  and    
        plans  are integrated into the organization's  career  management    
        systems, however, their value is likely to be limited."
        
           More  employee-centred information diffusion methods  are  not 
        without  flaws.  Just how much does job-posting tell people in  a 
        particular  specialism about unthought about alternative  routes?  
        More purpose built models may also be criticised.  
        
           Career  ladders  may give too much weight to the  way  careers 
        have  evolved  in  the past,  ignoring  unusual  combinations  of 
        individual  qualifications and circumstances, and their  frequent 
        failure   to   consider  lateral   moves   and   cross-functional 
        assignments.  Career paths also fail to incorporate the  dynamics 
        of   individual   career  choice   and   overemphasize   lockstep 
        progression  at  the expense of the need  for  individual  career 
        planning. (Gutteridge, 1986).
        
        
           Kidd   (in  press)  concentrates  on  self-assessment   tools, 
        emphasising  the 'increasing importance of the subjective  career 
        as  the building block of development in  organizations...'   The 
        MBA  study  by  Iles  and Mabey  (1993)  indicated  a  favourable 
        response  for  this, although there was  greater  enthusiasm  for 
        career  reviews, 'tapping power' and anchored  in  organisational 
        reality.   This  rather suggests, however, that  the  respondents 
        were not necessarily autonomous in career direction.
        
           Iles  and Mabey (1993) concluded that more positive  reactions 
        were likely to emerge from collaborative rather than  controlling 
        techniques,  overt  rather  than  opaque  (relevant)  ones,   and 
        prospective  rather  than  retrospective ones.   They  should  be 
        catalytic   rather   than  merely  analytic;  and   anchored   in 
        organisational realities rather than abstract.  
           It would appear, then, that classification according to  focus 
        on   employer  or  employee  does  not  provide  a   particularly 
        meaningful perspective on career development programmes.  Perhaps 
        Joyce  Russell's  (1991)  approach is  more  useful,  considering 
        interventions  according to individuals' career stages.    Whilst 
        admitting   the  paucity  of  evidence  about  the  efficacy   of 
        programmes,  Russell notes researchers' progress  in  identifying 
        psychological  needs of employees at various career  stages,  and 
        their  suggestions of suitable methods for assisting  individuals 
        in these different stages.
        
           We  may  find  that the need (or  perceived  need)  for  self-
        development tends to differ according to stage.   It is  possible 
        that  a  person in early career is unlikely to  need  to  develop 
        themselves  with a considerable degree of  independence.   During 
        the  task of establishing themselves, they tend to be  encouraged 
        by others to develop insight into their career orientations,  set 
        realistic  career  paths and understand the rudiments  of  career 
        logics (Greenhaus, 1987); the quality of information is generally 
        likely  to be governed by others.   Perhaps a discussion of  less 
        than  traditional career logics (e.g. Watts, 1981) could be  part 
        of  the literature in pre-employment careers venues.  
        
           Also  identified  as  an  early career  issue  by  Russell  is 
        achievement.   Whilst  the  use of  greater  job  challenges  and 
        responsibilities,  with more constructive  performance  feedback, 
        may  assist new employees' development and provide more  autonomy 
        than  'sitting  by  Nellie' techniques, the onus  is  still  with 
        employers to provide the arena for employees' endeavours.  On the 
        whole,  induction  into  an  organisation  is  primarily  one  of 
        integration, however much individuality may be valued.
        
           Environmental   forces,  however,  are  very  influential   in 
        encouraging  non-traditional  career  paths,  'Protean'   careers 
        (Hall,  1976).  Russell (1991) describes the changes  in  working  
        conditions  in the 1980s,  hierarchical  structures,  providing 
        career opportunities, being stripped away in the face of mounting 
        international  competition,  and with  new  technology  affecting 
        working  practices  directly and indirectly.   People  are  faced 
        with  plateauing,  threatened  or  actual job  loss  -  with  its 
        financial and emotional consequences - whilst also facing midlife 
        problems  involving "their pending mortality, physical  problems, 
        and    changed relationships with family members ....   Sometimes    
        these   difficulties   result   in  a  period   of   crisis   for    
        individuals."
        
           Hall  (1986b)  considered  a heightened  sense  of  ambiguity, 
        perceived  lack of clear career paths or progress, and  awareness 
        of  employers'  lack  of interest to result,  ironically,  in  "a 
        growing      feeling   of  personal  responsibility   for   one's 
        career.     ....  a strong    sense of  taking  charge,  assuming 
        control  over one's career."   He notes that whilst behaviour  in 
        midcareer involves reducing exploration in favour of establishing 
        career routine, in midcareer there is a need to disrupt  habitual 
        behavior  and trigger exploration.   The cycle  of  psychological 
        success  may  be  disrupted in midcareer.   There  is  also  less 
        feedback  and  recognition  at  midcareer  (Hall,  1985),  'which 
        further reduces psychological success.'   
           Hall  (1986b) predicts a need "to establish new  career  goals 
        that  would  initiate  new cycles of  the  psychological  success 
        experience."   The  balance  also tends to  shift  from  work  to 
        personal roles.  Career transitions and life event changes become 
        increasingly  interconnected.   (Hall notes that  midcareers  may 
        occur at different ages; Gallos, 1989, and other researchers note 
        this particularly in the careers of many women).   
        
           Russell (1991) cites various research suggestions,  including: 
        frequent  skills  assessments,  performance  feedback,  increased 
        recognition of good performance, and improved reward systems.  It 
        should  be noted that valued rewards may well have  changed  with 
        age  and  circumstances, thus requiring  individualised  systems.   
        Career  counselling  may  help to  reappraise  career  goals  and 
        improve  self-awareness.  She also suggests dual  career  ladders 
        for  'advancing  professionals', opportunities for  mobility  via 
        lateral  transfers, project assignments, cross-functional  moves, 
        and job rotation to broaden experience, especially for managers.  
        
           Developmental  programmes may also update midcareer  managers' 
        skills in particular areas (e.g. computer applications).  (Morgan 
        et  al, 1979, reported that in some cases, these were only to  be 
        attended  by  midcareer managers to avoid feeling  threatened  by 
        'rising younger stars').
        
           Downward  moves - particularly accompanied by the same  pay  - 
        are  suggested  by Russell.  She sees this as an  alternative  to 
        dismissal  for  under-performing,  to cut  back  work  hours,  or 
        because employees enjoyed their work more at a lower level.  
        
           A  more  realistic way of inducing employers to pay  the  same 
        wages  and  employees to welcome the move may be to  gear  reward 
        systems to successful performance at any given level, as  opposed 
        to  the Peter Principle (Peter, 1969).  This may  give  employees 
        additional  incentive to develop in a way which may lead to  more 
        personal  fulfilment  and more efficiency for  the  organisation; 
        psychometric  tests, which Iles and Mabey (1993) considered  well 
        received by their respondents, could assist in guidance.
        
           "  The late-career period poses different issues for employees 
           depending   on  whether  they  will  be  moving  up   in   the 
           organization, down to another position, or out (via retirement 
           or termination).  For a small number of late-career employees, 
           their  major  task is to prepare themselves  to  advance  into 
           senior  leadership  roles.  Succession planning  programs  are 
           used ... to refine their management  skills ....
        
           "    The  major  tasks of most late-career  employees  are  to 
           remain productive and to prepare for retirement .....  many of 
           them have to deal with the aftermath of midcareer obsolescence 
           or plateauing, and to contend with negative age biases on  the 
           job ...  Further, they may be confronted with choosing between 
           being  demoted or terminated.  ........... companies  need  to 
           understand   the   unique   problems   late-career   employees    
           encounter and to help them retire with minimal difficulty."
        Russell (1991)
        
           The  question with such a programme (Russell's article is  set 
        in  a  background of U.S.A. anti-discriminatory  legislation)  is 
        again  one  of  the  employer's  incentive  to  provide  suitable 
        programmes.   London and Stumpf (1986), however,  recommend  that 
        people aged 55-75 - 'young elders' - should be viewed as valuable 
        resources.  They may be encouraged to become mentors.  Also, they 
        may  provide  expertise  in those areas in  which  they  are  not 
        rendered  technologically obsolete;  Hall (1986b),  referring  to 
        people  in  midcareer being given trouble-shooting  and  internal 
        consulting  assignments,  gave an example where  a  company  thus 
        saved  itself several million dollars in outside  consultancy.  
        
           Companies  that  have not used such strategies  (e.g.  British 
        Telecommunications)  currently  pay immense fees  to  contractors 
        previously made redundant.   Career resource centres,  identified 
        by Russell (1991) as 'one of the least expensive and increasingly 
        popular  approaches [to providing] career information'  could  be 
        harnessed  to  the  realisation  of  employees'  value  in   non-
        traditional  career  roles (Watts, 1981),  perhaps  incorporating 
        self-assessment tools (c.f. Kidd, in press).
        
           In  addition  to age-related recommendations,  Russell  (1991) 
        discusses  various  'special  target  groups'.   One  such  group 
        comprises   supervisors,   who  could  be   taught   to   develop 
        subordinates  (as  opposed  merely  to  training  them).   It  is 
        possible,  however,  that  further advances need to  be  made  in 
        British  industrial  culture before such a development  could  be 
        sustained without suspicion or bewilderment.
        
           Given  the  strains inherent within the  relationship  between 
        employer  and  employee, perhaps external  bodies  could  provide 
        other sources of career assessment, advice, development,  support 
        and guidance.  As well as the question as to why employees should 
        take   more   control  over  their  own   destiny,   so   heavily 
        circumscribed and burdened by external forces,  one may also  ask 
        if  employers  are the most appropriate or responsible  body  for 
        ascertaining  the degree of dependence.  As  organisations  which 
        cast aside people who are surplus to requirements, they could not 
        retain  an  interest if they wanted to.  The  contradictions  are 
        created  by assumptions made within the current liberal  paradigm 
        (19th. century variety).
        
           It  has been suggested that organisations and career  resource 
        centres should consider adopting non-traditional career paths  as 
        respectable  options.   Consideration  of  developmental   stages 
        within   careers   could  form  a  useful   tool   for   planning 
        interventions which should suit individuals and changes in  their 
        circumstances.  It is possible that current values - in terms  of 
        reward  systems  and industrial relations - may  not  necessarily 
        remain in their current state.  Thus, while more research may  be 
        needed,  it  is  likely that quantitative  analyses  may  not  be 
        meaningful for a considerable time.
        


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