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        Careers Education Assignment: Spring 1998.
        
        
        Diploma in Careers Guidance, College of Guidance Studies, Swanley.
        
        Cole Davis
        
        
        'Careers  education can only function effectively from  within  a 
        student-centred perspective'.
        
        
           Given that the ambiguity of the term 'student-centred' will be 
        central to the discussion of its usefulness as a perspective,  it 
        is  necessary to provide a definition of careers education  which 
        does  not prejudice the argument overmuch.  This being the  case, 
        'the development of self-awareness in relation to  opportunities, 
        decision-making  and  transitions within careers', based  on  the 
        DOTS  model (Law and Watts, 1977), will be posited  as  providing 
        balance: it interlocks the intrapersonal with factors which could 
        be   taught   in   diverse   ways.    Student-centred    learning 
        (henceforward   SCL)  will  first  be  examined  within   British 
        education  in  general before narrowing the  focus  onto  careers 
        education.
        
           Brandes and Ginnis (1986), 'undeniably and incurably  biased', 
        attempt to convince the reader of the benefits of SCL as  opposed 
        to   an   apparently  inflexible  and  uncaring   entity   called 
        didacticism.  Such a discussion of relative merits is of  dubious 
        utility  when  Law's taxonomy of four teaching styles  (1996)  is 
        considered.
           
           Didacticism  may  be defined as  systematic  teaching,  either 
        strictly  controlled or offering rigidly  structured  programmes.  
        Whilst  this  may mean lectures or reading a  tract,  didacticism 
        does  not  preclude  cyclical interactions  between  teacher  and 
        student  and  such  apparently  enlightened  approaches  as  open 
        learning  and Socratic questioning.  Whilst running the  risk  of 
        being insufficiently responsive to individual need and readiness, 
        didacticism  is an effective, economic way of meeting  'the  need 
        for irreducible learning that everybody needs' (Law, 1996).  
        
           Participative  teaching  does not differ in  its  assumptions, 
        still  being characterised by 'expert consultation', but stresses 
        the   efficacy  of  active  learning   as  a  route   to   better 
        understanding and increased interest.
        
           Experiential teaching, however, often challenges the tenets of 
        content-based  learning.  The assumption is that  the  individual 
        already has a stock of wisdom and resources (c.f. Ausubel et  al, 
        1968;  Illich,  1971;  Hargreaves,  1972).   Students  should  be 
        interested  and  at a stage when they are ready  to  learn.   'No 
        right  answer'  is  offered  because  of  individuals'   personal 
        standpoints,  with characteristically neutral or  less  intrusive 
        facilitation.   Recognition of students' individuality brings  in 
        another important strand, that of empowerment, both for  students 
        and teachers.
        
           Experience-based  methods  provide learning  within  realistic 
        contexts.
        
           Which  of  the latter three teaching styles  constitutes  SCL?  
        Experienced-based  methods  may  be  discarded:  they  could   be 
        participative or experiential (or didactic, particularly when the 
        workplace confines the student to observation). (c.f. DES, 1981).
        
           Brandes and Ginnis (1986) portray SCL as participative (active 
        learning)  and experiential (students controlling  the  process).  
        The  two teaching styles are not necessarily  enmeshed,  however.  
        To  cite extremes, active learning may be dictated  and  students 
        may demand to be lectured to.
        
           Apart  from  these possible logical  contradictions,  a  blend 
        which  allows  any  number of hybrid  methods  or  variations  in 
        emphasis causes other problems.  If they are both practised,  how 
        can  we  be sure that both active and experiential  learning  are 
        'active  ingredients'.   No  standard  version  of  SCL  may   be 
        promulgated, as varied practice affects validation research. 
        
           Confounding variables are found in abundance in research  into 
        school  effectiveness;  12 key factors follow (Mortimore  et  al, 
        1988).  
        1.   Purposeful leadership of the staff by the head.
        2/3. Involvement of deputy head and teachers (curricular planning      
             and guidelines, decision-making).
        4.   Consistency among teachers.
        5.   Structured sessions (with some independence and freedom).
        6.   Intellectually challenging teaching (including problem-
             solving).
        7.   Work-centred environment (includes feedback; low  noise  and           
             not  excessive student movement).
        8.   Limited focus within lessons (only one curriculum area).
        9.   Maximum communication between teachers and pupils  (flexible 
             approach blending individual, class and group interaction as      
             appropriate, including class discussion).
        10.  Record-keeping linked to planning and assessment.
        11.  Parental involvement.
        12.  Positive climate (more reward/praise than 
             punishment/control, enthusiastic teachers, involvement of 
             staff and children in activities outside the classroom).
        
           Aside from the problem of analysing SCL factors, the  research 
        suggests that leadership, structure and teacher empowerment  seem 
        to be primary structural factors in educational success.  Another 
        study produced similar results (Doyle, 1987).  
        
           In  terms  of educational delivery,  an  enlightened  didactic 
        approach  seems  to  encompass  a  degree  of  active   learning.  
        Students  would  appear  to be engaged  but  not  necessarily  in 
        control.   Flexibility  in  delivery methods  will  be  discussed 
        shortly; point 8, with its relevance to careers education, later.
        
           The  conflicting evidence on school effectiveness has  led  to 
        claims  that methods are less important than ethos. It could  be, 
        however,  that  'positive climate', especially when placed  as  a 
        twelfth  variable (assuming ordering by strength of effect),  may 
        be an emergent property.
                
           Even  if  Bernstein's notion of 'open'  and  'closed'  schools 
        (1971) is accepted, the query over the nature of SCL still  nags.  
        The  inference  that  an  open school  is  one  with  less  rigid 
        boundaries may mean cooperation with, for example,   experienced-
        based learning (or active learning) but not student empowerment.
        
           If ethos is accepted as the important factor, then - given its 
        essential  subjectivity  - political factionalism  is  likely  to 
        emerge at various levels.   At local level, competing schools may 
        lay  claim to being student-centred: the vague 'in favour of  the 
        student'  elicits  emotive  reactions,  but  may  apply  to   any 
        programme.
        
           Alternatively,  'progressive' versus  'reactionary'  staffroom 
        politics  may  be disguised as caricatures  of  teaching  styles.  
        There  may  be  genuine debates about the  value  of  interweaved 
        subjects in lessons or group run activities (see headteacher Mary 
        Hanby's  dramatic change of heart, Lightfoot, 1998).  The use  of 
        phonics  and the highly polarised debate over history - facts  or 
        viewpoints - are also the weapons of prolonged skirmishes  fought 
        on the pages of the Daily Telegraph and The Guardian.
        
           Whilst the 'back to basics' faction seem most vociferous,  and 
        usually   supported   by  government  (before   and   after   the 
        Conservative  defeat of May 1997), they are not the only side  to 
        attempt  to  jettison  all traces  of  alternative  perspectives.  
        Brandes  &  Ginnis (1986) refer to SCL 'trust' factors   such  as 
        reliability, confidentiality, keeping agreements and warmth.   In 
        seeking  sole ownership of these attributes, which belong to  all 
        methods  and none, they indirectly propagate an immense  slur  on 
        many admirable traditional teachers.
        
           One clear advance is that modern schools do provide a  careers 
        education.    Another  is  that they tend to  take  more  than  a 
        passing   interest   in  making   learning   interesting.    This 
        preoccupation with motivating students is certainly part of SCL.
        
           As  the  earlier discussion suggests,  however,  SCL's  chosen 
        methods may not necessarily be superior.  Perhaps the success  is 
        in  the  variety  being offered, with all four  of  the  teaching 
        styles  being  offered at different times, as  appropriate.   
        
           Law  (1996)  suggests  that varied  methods  increase  student 
        interest;  that they provide 'depth, breadth and  progression'  - 
        this is supported by psychological experiments demonstrating  the 
        superiority  of  'elaborative' methods of  human  memory  storage 
        (e.g.  Craik  &  Lockhart, 1972); and that  they  may  cater  for 
        different learning styles (c.f. Kolb, 1984; although see also the 
        plea  for  individualised learning by the advocate  of  'Multiple 
        Intelligences', Howard Gardner, 1998).
        
            Assuming that a variety of teaching methods is most effective 
        for keeping students interested and well-informed, it is time  to 
        apply this assumption to careers education.
        
           In  terms  of  content-based, didactic  teaching,  Law  (1996) 
        discusses  the  'pivotal'  learning  programme.   Important   but 
        limited  in  application,  this occurs on  a  cyclical  basis  to 
        refresh  and build on prior learning.  It is currently  typically 
        taught by careers teachers.
        
           Law   also  considers  a  'foundation'  programme,  in   which 
        education  takes  into account much more dynamic aspects  of  the 
        world, including decision-making and the self.  This may be  part 
        of  Personal  and Social Education (PSE), akin to  an  'enclosed' 
        model of careers education (Watts, 1990).
        
           'Connecting  programmes' are another manifestation of  careers 
        education, drawing sustenance from all parts of the curriculum.
             "Geography  portrays opportunity,  literature  explores 
             self,   mathematics   assesses   probability,   science 
             suggests  causality; all other subjects  inform  career 
             development  in  such ways.   The  connecting-programme 
             strategy makes these links explicit."  (Law, 1996).
        
           The  school environment is likely to be crucial to the  choice 
        between or selection from these methods.  Leaving aside what  may 
        be the rhetoric of 'open' and 'closed' schools, some schools  may 
        be more attuned to some methods than others, but not  necessarily 
        within a didactic versus student-centred dichotomy or continuum.   
        
           Whilst  departments  cooperate  with each  other  and  careers 
        practitioners,  they  may prefer only to do so  within  areas  of 
        experience-based learning such as links with local industries  or 
        projects  within  local  firms.  These may be  relevant  and  may 
        involve   active  learning,  but  may  often   preclude   student 
        empowerment or individualised work. (DES, 1981) 
        
          Schools   may  compartmentalise,  seeing  active  learning   as 
        appropriate for physics and chemistry, facilitative approaches as 
        the preserve of PSE.
        
           Linking  (Law's  connecting  programme)  may  burden  teachers 
        coping with various initiatives which are all 'vital' and must at 
        all  costs  be  adapted  to all parts  of  the  curriculum.   For 
        example,  applied  to further education, it may be added  to  the 
        I.T., numeracy and communication core skills to the confusion  of 
        GNVQ students and lecturers nationwide.
        
           Where linkage does exist, it should try to avoid burdening  by 
        being   integral   to  the  scheme  of   learning   rather   than 
        supplementary.  Indeed, pressures on teachers to meet the demands 
        of the national curriculum will mean that careers topics need  to 
        be  relevant to the subjects and, as a corollary, the method  and 
        frequency  of  careers input is likely to vary with  subject  and 
        learning  stage.   There is, for example, no  reason  why  Labour 
        Market  Information  should  not  be  part  of  geographical  and 
        mathematical  analyses when readily understood.  Uneasy mixes  of 
        subjects,  however,  as implied by point 8 of the  research  into 
        effective  schools (Mortimore et al, 1988), may have  an  adverse 
        effect on teaching (Lightfoot, 1998).
       
           An eclectic approach by a school to maximise its own strengths 
        and  those of the surrounding community may be the best  way,  if 
        one  assumes that there is no one best way!  This does  not  mean 
        detachment  from national standards, as structures in  place  for 
        records  of  achievement may form the continuous  thread  between 
        disparate methods.  This may well be extended to higher education 
        students in the form of 'personal progress files' (Clare, 1998).
        
           Some  exponents  of  SCL go  beyond  individualised  planning, 
        recommending  the  participation of students  in  the  curricular 
        process  (c.f. Brandes and Ginnis, 1986; Bates et al,  1984;  and 
        Hargreaves  &  Hopkins, 1991, for a more diluted  approach).   As 
        research   also  favours  teacher  participation  in   curricular 
        development  planning  (Mortimore, et al, 1988),  the  discussion 
        moves to empowerment.
        
           The   question   of  empowerment  is  embedded   in   cultural 
        assumptions about the nature of education, and careers  education 
        specifically.  At a societal level of analysis, social theory may 
        be  viewed  in the light of four  mutually  exclusive  paradigms, 
        offering alternative views of social reality: the  functionalist, 
        interpretive,   radical   humanist  and   radical   structuralist 
        paradigms (Burrell & Morgan, 1979).
        
           Functionalism  implies  a  clearly  understandable  and   even 
        regulated   social  order,  as  exemplified  by  the   structural 
        functionalism  of The Social System (Parsons, 1951).   Vocational 
        guidance  may  be viewed as a form of  social  control,  adapting 
        individuals  to  the  opportunities appropriate  for  them.   Ken 
        Roberts'  calls  for  a good employment  service,  or  employment 
        exchange (1977) reflects this functionality and would no doubt be 
        complemented   by   a   careers  education   which   informs   of 
        opportunities    in   accordance   with   individuals'    status.  
        Empowerment  for  teachers would no doubt be  considered  on  the 
        merits of its efficacy, rather than on principle; empowerment  of 
        students would be less likely on either count.
        
           The interpretive paradigm adopts a subjectivist viewpoint.  As 
        with functionalist thinking, an overall tendency of this paradigm 
        is  to  align  with  the status quo, at least  in  terms  of  not 
        positively adopting a rationale of social change.  This  paradigm 
        may underpin concepts of a liberal education (Watts, 1996),  with 
        its  pluralist  acknowledgement  of  diverse  aims  and   dissent 
        (Dahrendorf,  R.,  1959).   Guidance  facilitates  but  does  not 
        influence within  a nondirective approach, strongly influenced by 
        Carl Rogers' (1961) counselling model.  This may have unfortunate 
        results  for  the fostering of non-traditional gender  roles,  as 
        adherence  to  a  non-directive  approach  means  that  students' 
        interests  and  preferences may be taken at face value.   Such  a 
        perspective may support experiential learning but is unlikely  to 
        further  empowerment  in  a political  sense;  teachers  may  not 
        necessarily  become empowered in terms of real control,  although 
        they may well be asked to share responsibility.
           
           Radical humanism, also subjectivist, uses human  consciousness 
        as  a tool of social critique.  The oppression of ideology,  with 
        its mental prisons of alienation and false consciousness, is  the 
        stuff  of the early Karl Marx (1975).  Entrants to the  workforce 
        are  habituated  to the requirements of  capital  (Brown,  1985).  
        Guidance  damps  down  excessive aspirations  (Clark,  1960).   A 
        proactive  progressive stance, however, would mean  coaching  and 
        assertiveness   training  (Watts,  1996),  which  would   signify 
        energetic  competition  within  the system.   Whilst  a  humanist 
        perspective  may  be  seen  as 'at the  roots  of   the  guidance 
        culture' (Law, 1996), the progressive approach may be  criticised 
        for  reinforcing the status hierarchy, providing no benefits  for 
        the   most   disadvantaged,  whilst  attempting  to   alter   the 
        distribution  of benefits (Watts, 1996).  Participative  teaching 
        would probably be characteristic, with circumscribed empowerment.
        
           Radical  structuralism is as positivist in its methodology  as 
        the   functionalist  paradigm,  but  advocates   social   change.  
        Concerned with power relationships and 'internal  contradictions' 
        within  society,  this paradigm owes most to Marx's  analysis  of 
        political  economy,  Das  Kapital  (1976).    Radical  viewpoints 
        appear  in educational texts, raising 'phantoms in the  illusions 
        of  power  that our controllers need in order to  make  sense  of 
        society'   (Bates  et  al,  1984),   with  accounts  of  teachers 
        reorganising  curricula  with a large degree  of  student  choice 
        (Jones,  1983).   Empowerment in this context is about a  radical 
        transfer  of  power.  More recently, the emphasis  has  moved  to 
        consciousness-raising  about inequalities,  critically  assessing 
        the world of work, with careers education as a vehicle of  social 
        change (Bates, 1990).
           
           Disaffected young people are clearly relevant to the  question 
        of empowerment.  Most sociological viewpoints would concede  that 
        it  would  be  desirable  for these people to  have  a  stake  in 
        society, whether the rationale is economic, humane or a matter of 
        social   stability.    The   more   dialectic   analysis,    that 
        contradictions  would lead to insurgency by the oppressed,  seems 
        less  practicable than undesirable; even if the more  anarchistic 
        expressions of radicalism, communitarianism and syndicalism,  are 
        considered,  they  seem  confounded  by  what  may  be  seen   as 
        fundamental deference (Barry, 1995).  
        
           Taking  a  more individualist viewpoint, an  analysis  of  the 
        utility  of  empowerment for careers education should  take  into 
        account  the needs of students.  If education is  truly  student-
        centred,  these must include social and cognitive  understanding.  
        Wants and needs, for example, are often dissimilar in the case of 
        children.  Similarly, teaching according to interests may be both 
        inefficient  and undesirable: "The fact that I am  interested  in 
        torturing  people  does not constitute a good  reason  for  doing 
        so ..."  (Barrow and Woods, 1975)
                        
           The  'culture of relevance' must therefore come to terms  with 
        the 'culture of standards' (Law, 1996); studies must be reliable, 
        valid,  rigorous and worthy of study.  Content is thus  essential 
        as   the   fundamental  building  block  on  which   to   process 
        information.   Whether  or not national standards  can  ensure  a 
        value-free,  individualistic  approach  is  a  moot  point,   but 
        knowledge is required for an informed debate.
        
           In  terms  of  careers education, a  clear  didactic  lead  is 
        probably  required  in  the  earlier key  stages.   This  may  be 
        accompanied,  where practicable, by active learning to  reinforce 
        understanding  and  initiate awareness  of  preferences.   Active 
        responsibility  for  learning  is  encouraged  and,  as  students 
        mature,  experiential  work  prepares them  for  making  informed 
        decisions.
        
           An early didactic approach is even more necessary if educators 
        are  attempting  to  teach equal opportunities  before  too  many 
        stereotypes  are  rigidly  adopted.   This  is  of  course   very 
        directive,  running  against  the  expressed  opinions  of   many 
        children and parents.
        
           As  well as considering the everyday tension between  offering 
        information  of the world as it is and trying to actively  change 
        attitudes  as a way of changing that world, it is necessary  once 
        again  to examine socio-political images of  education.   Methods 
        may not correspond with their ostensible theoretical roots.  
        
           Brandes and Gillis (1986) portray didacticism in such a way as 
        to  give a student an impression of 'the jackboot falling on  the 
        human  face forever' (Orwell, 1949).  Malcolm Bradbury's  History 
        Man (1975), however, shows the ability of an apparent facilitator 
        to deny any desire of becoming a guru whilst ruthlessly attaining 
        this  goal.   The  end of history is augured  by  these  abstruse 
        images,  representing the falling away of certainty in the  post-
        modern world (Giddens, 1993).  The claim, therefore, that careers 
        education  'can only function effectively from within a  student-
        centred  perspective' should be viewed with suspicion: it may  be 
        more  of  a  political package than  a  realistic  manifesto  for 
        implementing education.
        
 
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