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        Opportunity Structures Assignment: Winter 1997.
        
        
        Diploma in Careers Guidance, College of Guidance Studies, Swanley.
        
	  Cole Davis        
	  
           How successful have changes in the educational curriculum  and 
        training  provision  been  in  preparing  young  people  for  the 
        emerging  demands  of  the  new  labour  market?   What  are  the 
        implications  for  the Careers Service as a result of  this,  and 
        what support can individual Careers Advisers provide?
        
            
           Since  the 1970s (e.g. James Callaghan's 1976 Ruskin  speech), 
        British  policymakers have appeared to focus on making  education 
        and training relevant to the needs of the labour market.  As  the 
        labour  market  has  continued  to  change  drastically,  it   is 
        necessary  to  examine  these changes as the  criteria  for  then 
        measuring  the  reforms and their effects.  The  implications  of 
        this matrix upon the careers service and proposed strategies  for 
        individual practitioners will then be discussed together.
        
           'Flexible  working'  is demanded by  organisations  that  have 
        themselves  changed  radically  to meet  global  demands  (Handy, 
        1989).      Competition,  accelerated  by  the  effects  of   new 
        technology,   have  led  to  the   diffusion   of   transnational 
        corporations'  mores.  Retail staff are required to serve  around 
        the clock.   Traditional working class manufacturing jobs are  in 
        steep decline; such wages as are available are rightly or wrongly 
        priced  as  part  of  a  market  economy  (Hutton,  1995).   Many 
        professional  jobs  have  been mutated by  deregulation  and  the 
        emergence  of  comparatively  new  specialisms.   One  of  these, 
        information  technology,  with  the  accompanying  confidence  in 
        instant  communication, is creating a revolution in the  staffing 
        needs  of  those occupations which would otherwise appear  to  be 
        continuing in a traditional manner.   
        
           Full-time permanent employment would appear to be a  vanishing 
        commodity,  or at least the province of the  over-worked  (Handy, 
        1994)  and insecure (Hutton, 1995).  Some of this is  related  to 
        the  interdependent factors of part-time work and the  increasing 
        participation  of women in the workforce (Maguire, 1991) and  may 
        in  time be changed by demographic factors (Tillsley, 1995).   It 
        should  be  noted that extrapolations of trends may  only  be  of 
        value for a few years; at our current rate of change, almost  any 
        scenario  is possible.   The only common denominator seems to  be 
        volatility (and even that may eventually change).
        
           Certain  demands,  however, appear to be made of  the  current 
        workforce.   A basic standard of literacy and numeracy  is  often 
        required,  with  a  growing  demand  for  communication   skills, 
        particularly I.T. related; these are to be referred to henceforth 
        as core skills.  Manual jobs not requiring these have  diminished 
        considerably   in  number.   Jobs  at  even   relatively   junior 
        professional  levels  require more than content  knowledge;  such 
        process  skills (hence to be referred to as key skills)  vary  in 
        formulation (c.f. Pring, 1989; Rajan & Bevan, 1990), but  include 
        elements such as working as part of a team, decision-making,  and 
        entrepreneurial  flair.   The use of the term 'skills' may  be  a 
        rather   unfortunate  one,  giving  the  impression   of   neatly 
        categorised    achievements,   measurable   at   given    levels: 
        'benchmarked'.
        
           The development of the National Vocational Qualification (NVQ) 
        is   the  obvious  manifestation  of  such  an   approach,   with 
        performance  criteria for differing levels being attuned  to  the 
        perceived requirements of the employer and now being incorporated 
        into  Network Training and Modern Apprenticeships.  According to                                                      
        the careers advisers recently interviewed by the writer, the  NVQ 
        is gaining respect amongst employers, in spite of concerns  about 
        college-based NVQs (Financial Times, 1996).  Such support may  be 
        attributed  to the advantages of on-the-job training: skills  are 
        not  always  easily  transferable  to  other  companies,  a  cosy 
        recruitment  process is available without the tenure  strings  of 
        traditional apprenticeships, and the subsidies on top of low wage 
        levels is also attractive to employers.  This short-term approach 
        may  not  meet emerging needs, however.  A  training  within  one 
        company,  trained  in its way of working, may not be  of  use  to 
        employee or employer in the uncertain long- or even medium-term.
        
           The   GCE   A  level,  while  still   respected   by   'older' 
        universities,  which in turn produce degrees acceptable  to  many 
        large  employers,  also fails to  generate  transferable  skills, 
        often in terms of core as well as key skills.  Some proponents of 
        history, philosophy and psychology make claims to the development 
        of  'critical thinking' and 'powers of analysis'.  Even if  true, 
        such arguments hardly extend to the academic route as a whole.
        
            Universities complain about the poor standards of literacy of 
        undergraduates.   This  problem  is  being  countered  by  taking 
        grammar into account during assessment; success without  training 
        input  is  uncertain,  however.   Employers  of  graduates   also 
        complain about an insufficient breadth of key skills.  Once on  a 
        purely academic curriculum, students are unlikely to practise key 
        skills in a broad sense in further education.
        
           If  transferable skills are indeed required on initial  entry, 
        perhaps  with  an embryonic 'portfolio' for  future  regular  job 
        changes  (Handy, 1989), the narrow bases of the NVQ and A  levels 
        are  a  cause  for concern.  They  often  only  provide  utility, 
        respectively,  within  the current employing  organisation  or  a 
        circumscribed area of academic study.
        
           The GNVQ attempts to straddle the divide between the  academic 
        and the vocational.  Although didactically based, it focuses upon 
        a  particular industrial sector (e.g. leisure and  tourism),  and 
        its emphasis on performance criteria within continuous assessment 
        familiarises  students  with  the NVQ  system,  now  increasingly 
        available  at level 4 as a route to professional  qualifications. 
        It  is  also being increasingly accepted as an  equivalent  to  A 
        levels by many universities and some employers.  
          
           Its  adoption of core skills as non-negotiable targets  within 
        the  curriculum  constitutes an attempt  to  improve  candidates' 
        employability.  Unfortunately, the likeliest source of key skills 
        is  both  available and avoidable.  Work  experience  placements, 
        usually  two fortnightly periods in any given academic year,  are 
        not  assessed;  even  attendance is  not  mandatory.   Given  the 
        additional  problem  of scarcity and difficulty  in  arranging  - 
        placements give them lower priority than TRIDENT and professional 
        qualification   placements  -  tutors  sometimes  fail  to   take 
        placements seriously and may even discourage students from going.  
        Viewed  from most perspectives - getting a 'taster' of a type  of 
        work,  enriching course-based knowledge, or developing  skills  - 
        this must surely be viewed as an opportunity often wasted.   
        
           It may also strengthen the more cynical, but widely held, view 
        that  the GNVQ is merely a further education route for  the  less 
        able.  Such a view also encompasses secondary education.
             "More  cynical  commentators have  suggested  that  the 
             government's    desire    to    maintain    traditional 
             examinations and to introduce records of achievement as 
             well  is  a  re-enactment  of  the  'sheep  and  goats' 
             mentality  of  the  earlier  tripartite  system,   with 
             academic   examinations   being   preserved   for   the 
             scholastic  elite and records of achievement  servicing 
             the  needs of the rest.....  Some would go further  and 
             argue  that  the wide-ranging emphasis  of  records  of 
             achievement on recording a great variety of skills  and 
             personal qualities, as well as specific attainments, is 
             a  re-enactment  of the old elementary  school  concern 
             with  civic  virtue  and Godliness  as  well  as  basic 
             competence in the 'three R's' ..."  (Broadfoot, 1989).
        
           One  should also note that a concern with the authenticity  of 
        apparently  student-created  records  -  and  an   understandable 
        circumlocution  in  teachers' testimonials -  makes  them  rather 
        unreliable  measures of attainment.   This of  course  undermines 
        their value in facilitating entry into the labour market.
        
           The national curriculum, does, however, make a serious attempt 
        to  prepare  students in core and key  skills.   Primary  schools 
        concentrate on literacy and numeracy (key stage 1).  At secondary 
        level,  there  is  an  emphasis on process  that  may  have  some 
        validity  in  the  development of key skills;  in,  for  example, 
        'C.D.T.', planning, implementation and evaluation are valued,  as 
        well as the actual production.  T.V.E.I., introduced in the early 
        1980s, encouraged this, as well as schools and industry links.
        
           The  National  Curriculum,  with its core  components  and  an 
        attempt  to maintain a balance between sciences and  other,  more 
        popular  subjects  -  the notions of 'choice' and  'range'  -  is 
        mainly  aimed  at raising the attainment levels  of  children  of 
        average  and  below average ability.  At least  more  people  may 
        become  numerate  and literate enough to compete  for  the  wider 
        range of clerically focused jobs that would appear to be  largely 
        replacing assembly line jobs.
        
           Rees (1992) cites class and gender as primary determinants  of 
        the  type  of  course  selected, in  school,  on  youth  training 
        placements,  and in further and higher education.  She refers  to 
        the Sex Discrimination Act of 1975, which led to textbooks  being 
        monitored for more blatant stereotyping (c.f. Race Relations Act) 
        and  prevented  the  debarring  of  pupils  from  non-traditional 
        options.  Recent media concerns about schoolboys' inadequate GCSE 
        results may in fact have missed the point.  The apparent  deficit 
        is  a  relative  one, girls' performances  having  improved,  the 
        effects of legislation on education having filtered through.

        
             "However,  economic recession and the growth  in  youth 
             unemployment  are  seen  to  undermine  the  view  that 
             investment in education will ensure continuing economic 
             prosperity."   (Brown, 1989).
        
           In spite of an upturn in employment in 1997, young people  not 
        pursuing full-time further education are being encouraged to take 
        part  in the successors of the Youth Training Scheme rather  than 
        in  'real  jobs'.    It could well be argued  however,  that  the 
        unemployment  situation would be much grimmer if the schemes  did 
        not alter the statistics (Killeen, 1996).  As mentioned above (in 
        relation  to  NVQs), the narrowness of  on-the-job  training  may 
        limit  its  longer-term  benefits  in  the  face  of   continuing 
        technical and occupational volatility.  At the same time,  whilst 
        providing  employers  with  cheap labour,  the  schemes  do  give 
        trainees a continuing foothold on the qualification ladder  which 
        is increasingly a factor in the labour market.
        
           Brown  (1989),  however, doubts the ability  of  employers  to 
        stipulate  training  needs.  They agree only on "the need  for  a 
        flexible and adaptable workforce capable of responding to changes 
        in the work process". 
        
           There  are also very grave doubts about the over  exposure  of 
        youth  training  to market forces.   It is hard  to  envisage  an 
        adequate preparation for such insecurity;  neo-Keynesians such as 
        Hutton   would  argue  that  such  destabilisation  is  in   fact 
        deleterious and should be challenged. (Hutton, 1995).
        
           Whether or not a more regulated approach to political  economy 
        comes  about  - and the new Labour government of  1997  does  not 
        currently seem to be on such a course - we can currently only  be 
        certain of uncertainty.  As noted earlier, there are  diminishing 
        returns  upon  extrapolations  from  current  trends.   The  most 
        reasonable  suggestion for improving education may be  a  revised 
        form of liberal education (or humanistic, perhaps); in  requiring 
        people for all seasons, Renaissance Man (with Woman) may return.
        
           In  the meantime, the Careers Service may be seen to bear  the 
        burden  of lubricating the employment exchange  system,  adapting 
        individuals  to the needs of the labour market  (Roberts,  1977).  
        This  is in line with one of two governmental aims  for  guidance 
        work,  that  of economic efficiency. (Watts, 1996a).   The  clear 
        implication for careers advisers is that whatever their  feelings 
        or ideological principles, they should be informing clients about 
        appropriate training schemes or courses, whichever is appropriate 
        to  individual needs.  Clearly, a person's development,  personal 
        attributes  and aspirations need to be taken into  account,  with 
        the leavening of realistic information about the labour market.
        
           Given  the shifting patterns of occupations and  training  and 
        educational provision, the gathering of Labour Market Information 
        (and  Intelligence)  will remain a crucial  role  within  careers 
        services (the diversity deriving from privatisation and roles  in 
        further  education,  etc.,  suggest the plural  to  the  writer).  
        Individual  careers advisers clearly have a professional duty  to 
        update their knowledge.
        
           Continuing   and  improved  liaison  with  careers   education 
        teachers, as well as specialist input from advisers, is  required 
        to  form a firm foundation for guidance.  Transmission  of  sound 
        L.M.I.  may  reduce  some  of the  usual  burden  of  unrealistic 
        expectations.   
        
           A  second  governmental aim, that of promoting  social  equity 
        (Watts,  1996a), is easily translated into policy statements  for 
        careers companies, which have to comply in any case to be awarded 
        contracts.    Careers advisers, however, can take a truly  active 
        role.  A woman who has been informed that 'airports are no  place 
        for  girls' (actual case), and has been advised to take a  social 
        care course, may be informed of the reality of industrial  needs, 
        female participation in the workplace, and of the facts of sexual 
        discrimination  and  relevant  legislation.   Similarly,  careers 
        advisers  may  take  action  by  reporting  direct  and  indirect 
        discrimination  to the EOC, CRE, etc.  Increasing diversity is  a 
        reality  of  the emerging labour market, which can  be  discussed 
        within  careers  education and is necessary  to  both  discourage 
        conflict and to encourage local market needs.  (Local needs,  and 
        obvious  matches  with local people, should not  blind  advisers, 
        however, to individuals' potential.  One adviser, on the writer's 
        recent  placement,   failed  to  challenge  or  make  alternative 
        suggestions when an academically strong working class black woman 
        introduced her intention of becoming an air hostess).
        
           One  of  the  factors  of the  labour  market  is  the  uneven 
        distribution  of work, and types of jobs, over the  country.   As 
        well as gathering and disseminating information which facilitates 
        mobility,  in  Europe as well as nationally, truly  local  market 
        information  is also needed.  The careers adviser can improve  on 
        the   service's  information  by  developing   contacts   amongst 
        employers   and   actually  generating  the  idea   of   training 
        opportunities amongst such 'providers'.
        
           In  dealing  with  some of  the  above-mentioned  problems  of 
        training  and  work experience placements, careers  services  and 
        careers  advisers  have complementary  roles.   Careers  services 
        should  promote the importance of wider skills development  as  a 
        strategy   for   enabling   longer-term   organisational   change 
        (including  the current Investors in People scheme) and may  also 
        encourage providers to consider the benefits of the NVQ and other 
        non-academic routes to competence.  Advisers should also  promote 
        the latter during careers education, and in liaison with teachers 
        and other agencies.  
        
           Careers advisers, in conjunction with their services are  able 
        to discourage employers who abuse training schemes.  They do  not 
        have  to  'feed' clients to such employers in the  future;  given 
        occasional  shortages, and the subsidy, this may be an  effective 
        sanction, used with discretion.
                
           Within schools and further education, careers advisers  should 
        encourage placements to be seen as integral to learning, both  in 
        terms   of   curriculum   (especially  GNVQ)   and   in   general 
        understanding  of work.  Work 'tasters' may be misleading,  given 
        limited   exposure,  and  may  sometimes  lead   to   superficial 
        preferences in guidance interviews.  Whilst tactics must  reflect 
        limited  influence,  there are ways in which  these  considerable 
        weaknesses in the system may be addressed.
        
           Even  if  unable  to encourage careers  teachers  and  further 
        education  tutors  to  act directly,  direct  interaction  within 
        education  guidance could emphasise the benefits to be gained  by 
        preparing  for  placements and by sharing  knowledge  afterwards.  
        Services could also mail relevant institutions to promote such an 
        initiative.
        
           University  careers  services should continue  to  stress  the 
        advantages   of  work  experience,  in  terms  of  wider   skills 
        development  as well as 'looking good on your c.v.'.     Given  a 
        tendency  for tutors on non-vocational courses to regard  careers  
        education  and  guidance  as entirely  the  province  of  careers 
        professionals  (Watts, 1996b), a proactive approach is  required, 
        including   general   information   from  the   service   as   an 
        intervention, but preferably with direct interaction in the  form 
        of careers education where possible.   A similar approach may  be 
        usefully aimed at A level students. 
        
           In   advising  on  unemployment,  a  clear  problem  for   the 
        academically  less  able, including those  with  various  special 
        needs,  the  careers service should  encourage  programmes  which 
        allow   skills   training  at  work  (e.g.   Network   Training).  
        Individual   advisers   still   have   to   consider   individual 
        circumstances,  including the client's right to  choose.    There 
        will be cases where moving straight to a job is appropriate -  or 
        unavoidable.   Advising the client of the possibilities of future 
        (and  life-long) learning is a reasonable tactic:   the  National 
        Open  College Network (Mackinnon, 1997) is providing  a  national 
        framework  of  vocational qualifications to  overlay  traditional 
        adult  education  courses, whilst the Open  University  offers  a 
        part-time mature students' route to academic advancement.   These 
        are amongst the range of opportunities which may be discussed  in 
        guidance interviews.  Careers advisers should thus be capable  of 
        adopting  strategies which equip individuals as well as  possible 
        for the ever-changing labour market.  
        
           In  such  a volatile environment, no system  of  education  or 
        training is likely to prove adequate.   Vocational routes may  be 
        poorly   coordinated  and  inadequate   supported   academically; 
        academic courses may lack the wherewithal for students to acquire 
        necessary  key  skills.  It will be seen, however,  that  careers 
        services and individual careers advisers may design interventions 
        to directly and indirectly ameliorate these shortcomings.  
                
 
        
                                   REFERENCES
        
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        Cosin,  B.,  Flude,  M.  & Hales,  M.  (eds.)  School,  Work  and 
        Equality. Sevenoaks: Hodder & Stoughton.
        
        Brown,  P.  (1989) Schooling for Inequality?   Ordinary  kids  in 
        School  and the Labour Market.  In Cosin, B., Flude, M. &  Hales, 
        M.  (eds.)  School,  Work  and  Equality.  Sevenoaks:  Hodder   & 
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        Financial Times (1996)  A limited measure of success.   Financial 
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        Handy, C. (1989) The Age of Unreason.  London: Random.
        
        Handy, C. (1994) The Empty Raincoat.  Sydney: Random.
        
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